creators_name: Harnad, Stevan editors_name: Harnad, Stevan type: bookchapter datestamp: 2001-06-18 lastmod: 2011-03-11 08:54:40 metadata_visibility: show title: Category Induction and Representation ispublished: pub subjects: cog-psy subjects: comp-sci-neural-nets subjects: phil-lang full_text_status: public keywords: categorical perception, representation, symbol grounding, concepts, context, learning, approximation, meaning abstract: A provisional model is presented in which categorical perception (CP) provides our basic or elementary categories. In acquiring a category we learn to label or identify positive and negative instances from a sample of confusable alternatives. Two kinds of internal representation are built up in this learning by "acquaintance": (1) an iconic representation that subserves our similarity judgments and (2) an analog/digital feature-filter that picks out the invariant information allowing us to categorize the instances correctly. This second, categorical representation is associated with the category name. Category names then serve as the atomic symbols for a third representational system, the (3) symbolic representations that underlie language and that make it possible for us to learn by "description." Connectionism is one possible mechainsm for learning the sensory invariants underlying categorization and naming. Among the implications of the model are (a) the "cognitive identity of (current) indiscriminables": Categories and their representations can only be provisional and approximate, relative to the alternatives encountered to date, rather than "exact." There is also (b) no such thing as an absolute "feature," only those features that are invariant within a particular context of confusable alternatives. Contrary to prevailing "prototype" views, however, (c) such provisionally invariant features must underlie successful categorization, and must be "sufficient" (at least in the "satisficing" sense) to subserve reliable performance with all-or-none, bounded categories, as in CP. Finally, the model brings out some basic limitations of the "symbol-manipulative" approach to modeling cognition, showing how (d) symbol meanings must be functionally grounded in nonsymbolic, "shape-preserving" representations -- iconic and categorical ones. Otherwise, all symbol interpretations are ungrounded and indeterminate. This amounts to a principled call for a psychophysical (rather than a neural) "bottom-up" approach to cognition. date: 1987 date_type: published publication: Categorical Perception: The Groundwork of Cognition publisher: Cambridge University Press pagerange: 535-565 refereed: FALSE referencetext: Abelson, R.P. (1980) Searle's argument is just a set of Chinese symbols. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 424-425. Apostel, L., Berger, G., Briggs, A. & Michaud, G. (1972) Interdisciplinarity: Problems of teaching and research in universities. Paris: OECD. Ballard, D. H. (1986) Cortical connections and parallel processing: Structure and function. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9: 67 - 119. Berlin, B. & Kay, P. (1969) Basic color terms: Their universality and evolution. Berkeley: University of California Press Bialystok, E. & Olson, D. R. (1987) Spatial Categories: The Perception and Conceptualization of Spatial Relations. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of cognition New York: Cambridge University Press Block, N. (1980) What intuitions about homunculi don't show. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 425-426. Bloom, A. H. (1981) The linguistic shaping of thought: A study of the impact of language on thinking in China and the West. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum Associates Bornstein, M. H. (1984) Infant into adult: Unity to diversity in visual categorization. In J. Mehler & R. Fox (Eds.) Neonate cognition: Beyond the blooming, buzzing confusion. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum Bornstein, M. H. (1987) Perceptual Categories in Vision and Audition. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Boynton, R. M. (1979) Human color vision. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston Broadbent, D. E. (1975) The magic number seven after fifteen years. In: Studies in long term memory. A. Kennedy & A. Wilkes (eds.), London: Wiley Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J. & Austin, G.A. (1956) A study of thinking. New York: Wiley Buser, P. A. & Rougeul-Buser, A. (1978) (eds.) Cerebral correlates of conscious experience. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1978. Callaway, E., Tueting, P. & Koslow H. (Eds.) (1978) Event-related potentials in man. New York: Academic Press Chaitin, G. (1975) Randomness and mathematical proof. Scientific American 232: 47 - 52. Chomsky, N. (1980) Rules and representations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 1-61. Chomsky, N. & Halle, M. (1968) The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row Cooper, W. E. (1979) Speech perception and production. Norwood NJ: Ablex Davis, M. (1958) Computability and unsolvability. Manchester: McGraw-Hill. Davis, M. (1965) The undecidable. New York: Raven. Dennett, D. C. (1978) Why not the whole iguana? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1: 103-104. Dennett, D.C. (1982) The myth of the computer: An exchange. N.Y. Review Books XXIX (11): 56. De Valois, R. L. & De Valois, K. K. (1975) Neural coding of color. In E. C. Carterette & M. P. Friedman (Eds.) Handbook of Perception (Volume 5) New York: Academic Press Diehl, R. L. (1981) Feature detectors for speech: A critical reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin 89: 1-18. Diehl, R. L. & Kluender, K. R. (1987) On the Categorization of Speech Sounds. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Donchin, E. (forthcoming) Proceedings of the 2nd Carmel Conference on Philosophical Aspects of Event-Related Potentials. Dretske, F. I. (1983) Precis of Knowledge and the Flow of Information. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6: 55 - 90. Durlach, N. I. & Braida, L. D. (1969) Intensity perception. I: Preliminary theory of intensity resolution. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 46: 372-383. Eccles, J. C. (1978) A critical appraisal of brain-mind theories. In: Buser & Rougeul-Buser (1978, 347 - 355). Edelson, T. (1982) Simulating understanding: Making the example fit the question. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5: 338-339. Ehret, G. (1987) Categorical Perception of Speech Signals: Facts and Hypotheses from Animal Studies. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Ehret, G. & Merzenich, M. M. (1985) Auditory midbrain responses parallel spectral integration phenomena. Science 227: 1245-1247. Eimas, P. D., Miller, J. L. & Jusczyk, P. W. (1987) On Infant Speech Perception and the Acquisition of Language. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Eimas, P. D. Siqueland, E. R., Jusczyk, P. & Vigorito, J. (1971) Speech perception in infants. Science 171: 303-306. Eldredge, N. & Cracraft, J. (1980) Phylogenetic patterns and the evolutionary process. New York: Columbia University Press Fodor, J. A. (1975) The language of thought New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Fodor, J. A. (1980) Methodological solipsism considered as a research strategy in cognitive psychology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 63 - 109. Fodor, J. A. (1981) RePresentations. Cambridge MA: MIT/Bradford. Fodor, J. A. (1985) Pr\*'ecis of The Modularity of Mind. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8: 1 - 42. Fraenkel, A. A., Bar-Hillel, Y. & Levy, A. (1973) Foundations of set theory. New York: Elsevier. Frege, G. (1952) Translations from the philosophical writings of Gottlob Frege. (P. Geach & M. Black, eds.) Oxford: Oxford University Press. Garner, W. R. (1974) The processing of information and structure. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum Associates Gibson, E. J. (1969) Principles of perceptual learning and development. Engelwood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall Gibson, J. J. (1979) An ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Goodman, N. (1954) Fact, fiction and forecast. University of London: Athlone Press Goodman, N. (1968) Languages of art. New York: Bobbs-Merrill Griffin, D. R. (1978) Prospects for cognitive ethology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1: 527 - 538. Gru\*:nbaum, A. (1986) Pre\*'cis of The foundations of psychoanalysis: A philosophical critique. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9: 217-284. Gyr, J., Willey, R., & Henry, A. (1979) Motor-sensory feedback and geometry of visual space: a replication. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:59-94. Harnad, S. (1976) Induction, evolution and accountability. Annals of the N.Y. Academy of Sciences 280: 58-60. Harnad, S. (1982a) Neoconstructivism: A unifying theme for the cognitive sciences. In T. Simon & R. Scholes, R. (Eds.) Language, mind and brain. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Harnad, S. (1982b) Metaphor and mental duality. In T. Simon & R. Scholes, R. (Eds.) Language, mind and brain. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Harnad, S. (1982c) Consciousness: An afterthought. Cognition and Brain Theory 5: 29 - 47. Harnad, S. (1984) What are the scope and limits of radical behaviorist theory? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7: 720 - 721. Harnad, S. (1987a) Categorical perception: A critical overview. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Harnad, S. (1987b) Category induction and representation. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Harnad, S. (in preparation, a) Uncertainty and the growth of knowledge. [Review of Dretske (1983)] Harnad, S. (in preparation, b) Professor MacKay's conation conundrum: A nonexistent theorem. Harnad, S. (in preparation, c) Uncomplemented categories. Harnad, S. (in preparation, d) Against hermeneutics. Harnad, S. (in preparation, e) Minds, machines and Searle. Harnad, S., Doty, R. W., Goldstein, L., Jaynes, J. & Krauthamer, G. (eds.) (1977) Lateralization in the nervous system. New York: Academic Press Harnad, S. R., Steklis, H.D. & Lancaster, J. (eds.) (1976) Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280. Harvey, R. J. (1985) On the nature of programs, simulations and organisms. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8: 741-2. Haugeland, J. (1978) The nature and plausibility of cognitivism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1: 215-260. Haugeland, J. (1985) Artificial intelligence: The very idea. Cambridge MA: MIT/Bradford. Helson, H. (1964) Adaptation-level theory: An experimental and systematic approach to behavior. New York: Harper and Row Hexter, J. H. (1979) Reappraisals in History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Heyting, A. (1971) Intuitionism: An introduction. New Jersey: Humanities. Holender, D. (1986) Semantic activation without conscious identification. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9: 1 - 66. Howell P. & Rosen, S. (1984) Natural auditory sensitivities as universal determiners of phonemic contrasts. Linguistics 21: 205-235. Hoyle, G. (1984) The scope of neuroethology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7: 367-412. Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. (1965) Receptive fields and functional architecture in two nonstriate visual areas (18 and 19) of the cat. Journal of Neurophysiology 28: 229 -289. Johnson-Laird, P. M. (1983) Mental models. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Jusczyk, P. W. (1984) On characterizing the development of speech perception. In J. Mehler & R. Fox (Eds.) Neonate cognition: Beyond the blooming, buzzing confusion. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum. Katz, J.J. (1976) Effability: A hypothesis about the uniqueness of natural language. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280: 33-41. Keil, F. C. (1979) Semantic and conceptual development: An ontological perspective. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press Keil, F. C. (1986a) On the structure dependent nature of stages of cognitive development. In I. Levin (Ed.) Stage and structure: Reopening the debate. Norwood NJ: Ablex Keil, F. C. (1986b) On the acquisition of natural kind and artifact terms. In W. Demopoulos (Ed.) Conceptual change. Norwood NJ: Ablex Keil, F. C. & Kelley, M. H. (1987) Developmental Changes in Category Structure. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Klatt, D. H. (1980) SCRIBER and LAFS: Two approaches to speech analysis. In W. A. Lea (Ed.) Trends in speech recognition. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall Kleene, S. C. (1969) Formalized recursive functionals and formalized realizability. Providence, R.: American Mathematical Society. Kornhuber, H. H. (1978) A reconsideration of the brain-mind problem. In: Buser & Rougeul-Buser (1978, 319 - 334). Kornhuber, H. H. (1984) Attention, readiness for action, and the stages of voluntary decision: Some electrophysiological correlates in man. Experimental Brain Research supp. 9: 420-429. Kosslyn, S. M., Pinker, S., Smith, G. & Shwartz, S. P. (1979) On the demystification of mental imagery. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2: 535 - 548. Kuhl, P. K. (1986) Reflections on infants' perception and representation of speech. In J. Perkell & D. Klatt (Eds.) Invariance and variability in speech processes. Norwood NJ: Ablex. Kuhl, P. K. (1987) The Special-Mechanisms Debate in Speech Perception: Nonhuman Species and Nonspeech Signals. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Kuhn, T. (1970) The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Lane, H. (1965) The motor theory of speech perception: A critical review. Psychological Review 72: 275 - 309. Lawrence, D. H. (1950) Acquired distinctiveness of cues: II. Selective association in a constant stimulus situation. Journal of Experimental Psychology 40: 175 - 188. Lewis, D. (1971) Analog and digital. Nous 5: 321 - 327. Liberman, A. M. (1976) Discussion Paper. In S. R. Harnad, H. D. Steklis & J. Lancaster (Eds.) Origins and evolution of language and speech. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280. Liberman, A. M. (1982) On the finding that speech is special. American Psychologist 37: 148-167. Liberman, A. M., Harris, K. S., Hoffman, H. S. & Griffith, B. C. (1957) The discrimination of speech sounds within and across phoneme boundaries. Journal of Experimental Psychology 54: 358 - 368. Libet, B. (1978) Neuronal vs. subjective timing for a conscious sensory experience. In: Buser & Rougeul-Buser (1978, 69 - 82). Libet, B. (1985) Unconscious cerebral initiative and the role of conscious will in voluntary action. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8: 529-566. Lieblich, I. & Arbib, M.A. (1982) Multiple representations of space underlying behavior. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5: 627-659. Liu, L. G. (1985) Reasoning counterfactually in Chinese: Are there any obstacles? Cognition 21: 239 - 270. Lorenz, K. Z. (1981) The future of ethology. New York: Springer. Lucas, J. R. (1961) Minds, machines and G\*odel. Philosophy 36: 112-117. Lucas, M. M. & Hayes, P. J. (Eds.) (1982) Proceedings of the Cognitive Curricula Conference. University of Rochester: Rochester NY MacKay, D. M. (1978) What determines my choice? In: Buser & Rougeul- Buser (1978, 335 - 346). Macmillan, N. A. (1987) Beyond the Categorical/Continuous Distinction: A Psychophysical Approach to Processing Modes. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Macmillan, N. A., Braida, L. D. & Goldberg, R. F. (1987) Central and peripheral processes in the perception of speech and nonspeech sounds. In M. E. H. Schouten (Ed.) Psychophysics of speech perception. Martinus Nijhof. Massaro, D. W. (1987) Categorical Partitioning: A Fuzzy-Logical Model of Categorization Behavior. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Massaro, D. W. (forthcoming) Speech perception by ear and eye: A paradigm for psychological inquiry. McCarthy, J. & Hayes, P. (1969) Some philosophical problems from the study of artificial intelligence. In: Machine intelligence, B. Meltzer & D. Richie (eds.), Volume 4., Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press McClelland, J.L., Rumelhart, D. E., and the PDP Research Group (1986) Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, Volume 1. Cambridge MA: MIT/Bradford. McDermott, D. (1982) Minds, brains, programs and persons. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5: 339-341. Medin, D. L. & Barsalou, L.W. (1987) Categorization Processes in Category Structure. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Miller, G. A. (1956) The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review 63: 81 - 97. Minsky, M. (1961) Steps towards artificial intelligence. Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 49: 8 - 30. Minsky, M. & Papert, S. (1969) Perceptrons: An introduction to computational geometry. Cambridge MA: MIT Press Molfese, D. L. (1987) Electrophysiological Indices of Categorical Perception. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Molfese, D. L. & Molfese, V. J. (1987) Right hemisphere responses from preschool children to temporal cues in speech and nonspeech materials: Electrophysiological correlates. Brain and Language (in press) Nagel, T. (1974) What is it like to be a bat? Philosophical Review 83: 435 - 451. Nagel, T. (1986) The view from nowhere. New York: Oxford University Press. Neisser, U, (ed.) (1987) Concepts and conceptual development: Ecolological and intellectual bases of categorization. New York: Cambridge University Press Olson, D. R. (1970) Language and thought: Aspects of a cognitive theory of semantics. Psychological Review 77: 257 - 273. Olson, D. R. & Bialystok, E. (1983) Spatial cognition: The structure and development of the mental representation of spatial relations. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum. Osherson, D. N., Stob, M. & Weinstein, S. (1986) Systems that learn. Cambridge MA: MIT/Bradford. Pastore, R. E. (1987) Categorical Percption: Some Psychophysical Models. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Pastore, R. E., Szczesiul, R., Wielgus, V., Nowikas, K. & Logan, R. (1984) Catgeorical perception, category boundary effects, and continuous perception. Perception & Psychophysics 35: 583-585. Paivio, A. (1986) Mental representation: A dual coding approach. New York: Oxford Popper, K. R., & Eccles, J. C. (1977) The self and its brain. Heidelberg: Springer, 1977. Premack, D. (1976) Mechanisms of intelligence: Preconditions for language. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 280: 544 - 561. Putnam, H. (1975) Mind, language and reality. New York: Cambridge University Press. Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1973) What the mind's eye tells the mind's brain: A critique of mental imagery. Psychological Bulletin 80: 1-24. Pylyshyn, Z. (1978) Computational models and empirical constraints. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1:93-127. Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1980) Computation and cognition: Issues in the foundations of cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 111-169. Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1981) The imagery debate: Analogue media versus tacit knowledge. Psychological Review 88: 16 - 45. Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1984) Computation and cognition. Cambridge MA: MIT/Bradford Quine, W. V. O. (1953) From a logical point of view. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press Quine, W. V. O. (1960) Word and object. Cambridge MA: MIT Press Rabin, M. O. (1977) Complexity of computations. Communications of the Association of Computer Machinery 20:625-633. Reddy, D. R. (1980) Machine models of perception. In R. A. Cole (Ed.) Perception and production of fluent speech. Hillsdale NJ: Freeman. Regan, D. M. (1972) Evoked potentials in psychology, sensory physiology and clinical medicine. New York: Wiley. Regan, D. M. (1975) Color coding of pattern responses in man investigated by evoked potential feedback and direct plot techniques. Vision Research 15: 175-183. Regan, D. M. (1987) Evoked Potentials and Colour-Defined Categories. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Remez, R. E. (1987) Neural Models of Speech Perception: A Case History. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Remez, R. E. & Rubin, P. E. (1984) On the perception of intonation from sinusoidal sentences. Perception and Psychophysics 35: 429-440. Repp, B. H. (1984) Categorical perception: Issues, methods and findings. In N. J. Lass(Ed.) Speech and language: Advances in basic research and practice (Vol. 10). New York: Academic Press. Repp, B. H. & Liberman, A. H. (1987) Phonetic Boundaries are Flexible. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Rock, I. (1980) Difficulties with a direct theory of perception. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:398-399. Rock, I. (1983) The logic of perception. Cambridge MA: MIT Press Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B. (1978) Cognition and categorization. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum Associates Rosen, S. & Howell, P. (1987) Auditory, Articulatory and Learning Explanations of Categorical Perception in Speech. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Rosenblatt, F. (1962) Principles of neurodynamics. Washington DC: Spartan. Rougeul-Buser, A., Bouyer, J. J., & Buser, P. (1978) Transitional states of awareness and short-term fluctuations of selective attention: Neurophysiological correlates and hypotheses. In: Buser & Rougeul-Buser (1978, 215 - 232). Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J.L., and the PDP Research Group (1986) Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, Volume 2. Cambridge MA: MIT/Bradford. Sayre, K. M. (1986) Intentionality and information processing. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9: 121 - 166. Schank, R. C., Collins, G. C., & Hunter, L. E. (1986) Transcending inductive category formation in learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9: XXX - XXX. Searle, J. R. (1969) Speech acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Searle, J. R. (1980a) Minds, brains and programs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 417-424. Searle, J. R. (1980b) Instrinsic intentionality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 450-457. Searle, J. R. (1982a) The Chinese room revisited. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5: 345-348. Searle, J. R. (1982b) The myth of the computer. New York Review of Books XXIX(7): 3-7. Searle, J. R. (1982c) The myth of the computer: An exchange. New York Review of Books XXIX(11): 56-57. Searle, J. R. (1983) Intentionality: An essay in the philosophy of mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Searle, J. R. (1985) Patterns, symbols and understanding. Behaviral and Brain Sciences 8: 742-743. Selfredge, O. G. (1959) Pandemonium: A paradigm for learning. In Mechanization of theought processes. London: H. M. Stationery Office. Selverston, A. I. (1980) Are central pattern generators understandable? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 535-571. Shankweiler, D. P., Strange, W. & Verbrugge, R. R. (1977) Speech and the problem of perceptual constancy. In R. E. Shaw & J. Bransford (Eds.) Perceiving, acting and knowing: Toward an ecological psychology. Hilsdale NJ: Erlbaum Shannon, L. E., & Weaver, W. (1949) The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Shepard, R. N. & Cooper, L. A. (1982) Mental images and their transformations. Cambridge: MIT Press/Bradford. Siegel, J. A. & Siegel, W. (1977) Absolute identification of notes and intervals by musicians. Perception & Psychophysics 21: 143-152. Simon, H. A. (1957) Models of man: Social and rational. New York: Wiley Skinner, B. F. (1984a) Methods and theories in the experimental analysis of behavior. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7: 511-546. Skinner, B. F. (1984b) Reply to Harnad. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7: 721-724. Slezak, P. (1982) G\*odel's theorem and the mind. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 33: 41-52. Smith, E. E. & Medin, D. L. (1981) Categories and concepts. Cambridge MA: Harvard Snowdon, C. T. (1987) A Naturalistic View of Categorical Perception. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Snowdon, C. T., Coe, C. L. & Hodun, A. (1985) Population recognition of isolation peeps in the squirrel monkey. Animal Behaviour 33: 1145-1151. Stabler, E. P. (1985) How are grammars represented? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6: 391-421. Steklis, H. D. & Harnad, S. R. (1976) From hand to mouth: Some critical stages in the evolution of language. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280: 445-455. Stevens, K. N., & Halle, M. (1967) Remarks on analysis by synthesis and distinctive features. In: Models for the perception of form, W. Wathen-Dunn (Ed.). Cambridge MA: MIT Press Studdert-Kennedy, M., Liberman, A. M., Harris, K. S. & Cooper, F. S. (1970) Motor theory of speech perception: A reply to Lane's critical review. Psychological Review 77: 234-249. Stulman, J. (1969) The methodology of pattern. Fields Within Fields 1:7-9. Turing, A. M. (1964) Computing machinery and intelligence. In: Minds and machines , A. R. Anderson (ed.). Engelwood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall Turing, A. M. (1964) Computing machinery and intelligence. In: Minds and machines, A. R. Anderson (ed.), Engelwood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall. Tversky, A. (1977) Features of similarity. Psychological Review 84: 327 - 352. U.S. Committee on Science and Astronautics (1970) Interdisciplinary research: an exploration of public policy issues. Science Policy Research Division, Legislative Reference, Library of Congress, Serial T. Ullman, S. (1980) Against direct perception. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3: 373 - 415. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962) Language and thought. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. Whorf, B. L. (1964) Language, thought and reality. Cambridge MA: MIT Press Wilson, M. (1987) Brain Mechanisms in Categorical Perception. In S. Harnad (Ed.) Categorical perception: The groundwork of Cognition. New York: Cambridge Univerity Press Wilson, M., De Bouche, B. A. & Streitfeld, B. D. (1983) Catgegorical perception of visual stimuli. Paper presented at the Symposium on Categorical Perception, 54th Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Baltimore MD. Wittgenstein, L. (1953) Philosophical investigations. New York: Macmillan Wittgenstein, L. (1967) Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics. Cambridge, Mass.: M.T. Press. von Neumann, J. (1954) The computer and the brain. New Haven: Yale University Press. Zadeh, L. A. (1965) Fuzzy sets. Information & Control 8: 338-353. citation: Harnad, Stevan (1987) Category Induction and Representation. [Book Chapter] document_url: http://cogprints.org/1572/1/harnad87.categorization.html