Cogprints: No conditions. Results ordered Title. 2018-01-17T14:21:56ZEPrintshttp://cogprints.org/images/sitelogo.gifhttp://cogprints.org/2004-07-30Z2011-03-11T08:55:38Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/3723This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/37232004-07-30ZAlgorithms for randomness in the behavioral sciences: A tutorialSimulations and experiments frequently demand the generation of random numbera that have
specific distributions. This article describes which distributions should be used for the most cammon
problems and gives algorithms to generate the numbers.It is also shown that a commonly used permutation algorithm (Nilsson, 1978) is deficient.Marc Brysbaert1999-12-21Z2011-03-11T08:54:20Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/839This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/8391999-12-21ZAn Alternative View of Schizophrenic CognitionAn alternative view to the traditionally held view that schizophrenia is characterised by severely disordered cognition is presented. It is possible that apparently self-contradictory expressions of schizophrenics are well-formed communicative expressions of highly ordered cognitive systems. Building on the premise that behavior is in general communicative, and using Godels Incompleteness Theorem from logic as a model, it is shown that the most characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia (namely apparently self-contradictory thought, delusions and hallucinations) may indicate truths that cannot be derived within highly ordered cognitive systems.Douglas M. Snyder2008-09-19T14:08:54Z2011-03-11T08:57:11Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/6189This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/61892008-09-19T14:08:54ZAmniotic Fluid Ingestion Before Vaginal/Cervical Stimulation Produces a Dose-Dependent Enhancement of Analgesia and Blocks PseudopregnancyA substance in amniotic fluid (AF) and placenta has been shown to enhance analgesia produced by morphine, late pregnancy, footshock, and vaginal/cervical stimulation (VS). When morphine-induced analgesia was assessed previously, the degree of enhancement by ingestion of AF or placenta was found to be a function of the amount of analgesia being generated. We have extended these results to include the analgesia produced by VS. Analgesia induced by 75, 125, 175, or 225 g of vaginal/cervical pressure was measured in rats pretreated with 0.25 ml (by orogastric infusion) of either AF or saline. AF infusion enhanced the analgesia produced by 125 g VS, but did not affect the analgesia produced by 75, 175, or 225 g VS. Unexpectedly, we also found that infusion of AF shortly before the application of VS prevents VS-induced pseudopregnancy (PsP). Whereas the incidence of PsP following 75, 125, or 175 g VS was less than 19% and not statistically different for AF and saline pretreatments, the incidence of PsP after 225 g VS was 44% in saline-pretreated rats, but only 10% in AF-pretreated rats. Protection from the induction of pseudopregnancy, which could be caused by mechanical stimulation of the cervical area during delivery, may be an additional benefit of parturitional ingestion of placenta and amniotic fluid (placentophagia).Alexis C. Thompsonathompso@RIA.Buffalo.EDUPatricia AbbottJean C. DoerrElizabeth J. FergusonDr. Mark B. Kristalkristal@buffalo.edu2008-09-19T13:55:20Z2011-03-11T08:57:12Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/6212This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/62122008-09-19T13:55:20ZAmniotic-Fluid Ingestion Enhances
Morphine Analgesia During Morphine
Tolerance and Withdrawal in RatsIngestion of placenta and amniotic fluid has been shown to enhance opioid-mediated analgesia in rats produced by morphine injection. footshock, vaginal/cervical stimulation, and during late pregnancy. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of amniotic fluid ingestion on the characteristics of morphine dependency and withdrawal. Tail-flick latencies in Long-Evans rats were determined before and after repeated daily injections of morphine sulfate. It was found that ingestion of amniotic fluid after establishment of the morphine dependency, coupled with an injection of an otherwise ineffective dose of morphine, enhanced analgesia in morphine-dependent rats, and reversed hyperalgesia seen during withdrawal from morphine dependency.Jean C. DoerrDr. Mark B. Kristalkristal@buffalo.edu2008-09-19T13:55:05Z2011-03-11T08:57:12Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/6211This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/62112008-09-19T13:55:05ZAmniotic-Fluid Ingestion Enhances the Central
Analgesic Effect of MorphineAmniotic fluid and placenta contain a substance (POEF) that when ingested enhances opioid-mediated analgesia produced by several agents (morphine injection, vaginal/cervical stimulation, late pregnancy, footshock), but not that produced by aspirin injection. The present series of experiments employed quaternary naltrexone, an opioid antagonist that does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier, in conjunction with either peripheral or central administration of morphine, to determine whether amniotic-fluid ingestion (and therefore POEF ingestion) enhances opioid-mediated analgesia by affecting the central and/or peripheral actions of morphine. The results suggest that POEF affects only the central analgesic effects of morphine.Jean M. DiPirrodipirrjm@buffalostate.eduAlexis C. Thompsonathompso@ria.buffalo.eduDr. Mark B. Kristalkristal@buffalo.edu2006-01-21Z2011-03-11T08:56:19Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/4704This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/47042006-01-21ZAnaphora and the Logic of ChangeThis paper shows how the dynamic interpretation of natural language introduced in work by Hans Kamp and Irene Heim can be modeled in classical type logic. This provides a synthesis between Richard Montague's theory of natural language semantics and the work by Kamp and Heim. Reinhard Muskens1998-04-25Z2011-03-11T08:53:42Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/165This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1651998-04-25ZThe antecedents of consciousness: Evolving the "intelligent" ability to simulate situations and contemplate the consequences of novel courses of action.Offline trial and error is probably the basic way of solving novel problems and, where fancier procedures such as algorithms are used, trial-and-error was probably the main way of evolving them. We need to know how humans evolved such simulation abilities. And it would be nice to know some alternative paths that an extraterrestrial intelligence might have followed. I'm going to give an example of the neural machinery that intelligence might require, a brief description of how it might have evolved, then discuss hominid evolution more generally and speculate about what might happen in the next century as we better understand the machinery underlying our own higher intellectual functions.William H. Calvin2008-04-24T13:34:55Z2011-03-11T08:57:06Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/6036This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/60362008-04-24T13:34:55ZApproach-Avoidance Behavior of Refugees in a Finnish SchoolThe purpose of the study was to research how the Vietnamese refugees
(N was 9) behave with a Finnish school environment. Participating observation
was applied because of the lack of public possibilities to study the phenomenon
openly. The Markovian approach was the analysis of the data. The results
indicate school environment, its interaction guides how the refugees behave in
their approach-avoidance behavior. Principally, the behavior of the surrounding
school environment produces ambivalence into the behavior of the refugees.Ed.D. Raimo J Laasonen06-27-1944-10721998-06-03Z2011-03-11T08:54:10Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/666This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/6661998-06-03ZBartlett's View of the Group as a Psychological UnitFrederic C. Bartlett (1932) pioneered studies relating individual and group behavior. His memory experiments suggest that cognition is, in his terms, a "socially constructive" process. His theories relate coordination, group trends, individual insight, design rationales, and collaborative adaptations of artifacts in practice.William J. Clancey1998-06-24Z2011-03-11T08:53:49Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/335This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/3351998-06-24ZThe biology of consciousness: Comparative review of Israel Rosenfield, The Strange, Familiar, and Forgotten: An anatomy of Consciousness and Gerald M. Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the MindFor many years, most AI researchers and cognitive scientists have reserved the topic of consciousness for after dinner conversation. Like "intuition," the idea of consciousness appeared to be too vague or general to be a good starting place for understanding cognition. Work on narrowly-defined problems in specialized domains such as medicine and manufacturing focused our concerns on the nature of representation, memory, strategies for problem-solving, and learning. Some writers, notably Ornstein(1972) and Hofstadter (1979), continued to explore the ideas, but implications for cognitive modeling were unclear, suggesting neither experiments, nor new computational mechanisms.W J. Clancey1998-04-05Z2011-03-11T08:53:46Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/262This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/2621998-04-05ZThe Brain and its BoundariesThese are heady times for the sciences of the mind. The pace of discovery is quickening, thanks to the mountain of data provided by the new brain-imaging technologies, but thanks even more to the computer simulations that have expanded and disciplined our imaginations, dramatically enlarging the logical space of models that can be investigated. We can now seriously consider hypotheses that a few years ago were simply unframable--"inconceivable", a philosopher might have been tempted to say. These computer-expanded powers are being vigorously exploited by a new generation of theorists and experimentalists. In some quarters the first symptoms of gold rush fever have been detected.Daniel C Dennett2001-06-18Z2011-03-11T08:54:40Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1579This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/15792001-06-18ZCategorical Perception and the Evolution of Supervised Learning in Neural NetsSome of the features of animal and human categorical perception
(CP) for color, pitch and speech are exhibited by neural net simulations of CP with
one-dimensional inputs: When a backprop net is trained to discriminate and then
categorize a set of stimuli, the second task is accomplished by "warping" the
similarity space (compressing within-category distances and expanding
between-category distances). This natural side-effect also occurs in humans and
animals. Such CP categories, consisting of named, bounded regions of similarity
space, may be the ground level out of which higher-order categories are
constructed; nets are one possible candidate for the mechanism that learns the
sensorimotor invariants that connect arbitrary names (elementary symbols?) to the
nonarbitrary shapes of objects. This paper examines how and why such
compression/expansion effects occur in neural nets. Stevan HarnadS.J. HansonJ. Lubin1998-02-12Z2011-03-11T08:54:06Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/594This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/5941998-02-12ZConsciousness From a First-Person PerspectiveThe sequence of topics in this reply roughly follows that of the target article. The latter focused largely on experimental studies of how consciousness relates to human information processing, tracing their relation from input through to output. The discussion of the implications of the findings both for cognitive psychology and philosophy of mind was relatively brief. The commentaries reverse this emphasis, and so, correspondingly, does the reply. Max Velmans2006-09-25Z2011-03-11T08:56:37Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/5182This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/51822006-09-25ZDoes the Need for Agreement Among Reviewers Inhibit the Publication of Controversial Findings?As Cicchetti indicates, agreement among reviewers is not high. This conclusion is empirically supported by Fiske and Fogg (1990), who reported that two independent reviews of the same papers typically had no critical point in common. Does this imply that journal editors should strive for a high level of reviewer consensus as a criterion for publication? Prior research suggests that such a requirement would inhibit the publication of papers with controversial findings. We summarize this research and report on a survey of editors.J. Scott ArmstrongRaymond Hubbard2004-05-06Z2011-03-11T08:55:33Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/3621This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/36212004-05-06ZEffects of word processing on text revisionRevising is an evaluating and editing process that is an essential part of text production. Is text revising facilitated by the use of word processors? After examining the related research, it is difficult to conclude with certainty that the use of word processors is always effective in improving writers' revising skills, or that their use necessarily leads to the production of higher quality texts. Their effectiveness depends on a large number of parameters (computer equipment, writing skills, task execution conditions) which psychologists are now starting to measure.A Piolat1998-11-15Z2011-03-11T08:53:43Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/180This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1801998-11-15ZEnhancement of Opioid-Mediated Analgesia: A Solution to the Enigma of PlacentophagiaTwo major consequences of placentophagia, the ingestion of afterbirth materials that occurs usually during mammalian parturition, have been uncovered in the past several years. The first is that increased contact, associated with ingesting placenta and amniotic fluid from the surface of the young, causes an accelerated onset of maternal behavior toward those young. The second, which probably has importance for a broader range of mammalian taxa than the first, is that ingestion of afterbirth materials produces enhancement of ongoing opioid-mediated analgesia. The active substance in placenta and amniotic fluid has been named POEF, for Placental Opioid-Enhancing Factor. Recent research on both consequences is summarized, with particular attention to POEF, the generalizability of the enhancement phenomenon, its locus and mode of action, and its significance for new approaches to the management of pain and addiction.Mark B. Kristal2006-12-22Z2011-03-11T08:56:44Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/5303This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/53032006-12-22ZEtiology of structural brain asymmetry in schizophrenia, an alternative hypothesisDuring normal development of the fetal brain, the left hemisphere lags behind the right hemisphere in intrauterine growth, causing the left hemisphere to be smaller than the right hemisphere throughout the early and mid-prenatal period. By the end of the second trimester, the right hemisphere has achieved almost full-term size; thus second-trimester injuries affecting neurons, that is, anoxic, ischemic, toxic, or infectious insults that are systemic and bilateral, will affect the left hemisphere more than the right hemisphere. While other explanations for brain asymmetries in schizophrenia have been proposed, the embryological literature is consistent with the hypothesis that a prenatal injury may be one etiological factor in producing the structural brain asymmetries seen in psychotic adult patients.
HS Bracha1998-05-06Z2011-03-11T08:53:37Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/31This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/311998-05-06ZGenetic effects on 'environmental' measures: Consequences for behavior-genetic analysisDr. Plomin is one of the most accomplished human behavior-geneticists of the moment, as evidenced by the many valuable contributions to the field by him and his collaborators. Again, the present target article has some important implications, this time not only for behavior genetics, but also for mainstream psychology. P&B argue quite convincingly that certain measures often used by psychologists to assess environmental influences on a subject contain a genetic component. Hence, at least as long as indirect environmental measures are involved, these variables are not valid as such, but, rather, phenotypes amenable to genetic analysis. Unfortunately, P&B do not phrase their conclusions in this way. Although in the title of their target article the word 'environmental' is placed within quotation marks, in the rest of their target article they stick to this terminology. In my opinion, this is unfortunate and promotes confusion between some important concepts of genetic analysis.Wim E. Crusio1998-04-05Z2011-03-11T08:53:46Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/260This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/2601998-04-05ZGranny's Campaign for Safe ScienceWhat is the thread tying together all of Jerry Fodor's vigorous and influential campaigns over the years? Consider the diversity of his btes noirs. In Chihara and Fodor, 1965, it was Wittgenstein and the "no private language" gang; in Psychological Explanation (1968) and The Language of Thought (1975), it was Ryle, Skinner and other behaviorists; in "Tom Swift and his Procedural Grandmother" (1978 reprinted in 1981) it was AI in general and procedural semantics in particular; in "Three Cheers for Propositional Attitudes" (1979, reprinted with revisions in 1981) it was me and my "irrealist" way with stances; in "Methodological Solipsism Considered as a Research Strategy in Cognitive Science" (1980 reprinted in 1981) it was the brand of "naturalism" that claimed that psychology had to traffic in meanings that were not inside the head; in The Modularity of Mind (1983) it was Bruner and the other New Look psychologists who infected perception with thought, but also, in the shocking punch line of the last chapter, AI again; in Psychosemantics (1987) it was the meaning holists and those who would ground their naturalistic appeal to teleological formulations in what Fodor elsewhere has called "vulgar Darwinism" (these villains take another drubbing in his forthcoming "A Theory of Content"); and in "Connectionism and Cognitive Architecure: a Critical Analysis", Fodor and Pylyshyn, 1988, it is the connectionists and their many friends.Daniel C Dennett2006-01-21Z2011-03-11T08:56:19Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/4707This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/47072006-01-21ZHyperfine-Grained Meanings in Classical LogicThis paper develops a semantics for a fragment of English that is based on the idea of `impossible possible worlds'. This idea has earlier been formulated by authors such as Montague, Cresswell, Hintikka, and Rantala, but the present set-up shows how it can be formalized in a completely unproblematic logic---the ordinary classical theory of types. The theory is put to use in an account of propositional attitudes that is `hyperfine-grained', i.e. that does not suffer from the well-known problems involved with replacing expressions by logical equivalents.Reinhard Muskens1998-02-10Z2011-03-11T08:54:06Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/593This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/5931998-02-10ZIs Human Information Processing Conscious?Investigations of the function of consciousness in human information processing have focused mainly on two questions: (1) where does consciousness enter into the information processing sequence and (2) how does conscious processing differ from preconscious and unconscious processing. Input analysis is thought to be initially "preconscious," "pre-attentive," fast, involuntary, and automatic. This is followed by "conscious," "focal-attentive" analysis which is relatively slow, voluntary, and flexible. It is thought that simple, familiar stimuli can be identified preconsciously, but conscious processing is needed to identify complex, novel stimuli. Conscious processing has also been thought to be necessary for choice, learning and memory, and the organization of complex, novel responses, particularly those requiring planning, reflection, or creativity.Max Velmans1998-04-25Z2011-03-11T08:53:37Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/23This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/231998-04-25ZIslands in the Mind: Dynamic Subdivisions of Association Cortex and the Emergence of a Darwin MachineTo model cognitive processing, language construction, and "intelligence" at a neurophysiological level using darwinian evolutionary mechanisms requires more than a survival-of-the-fittest principle. Darwinism is all about the copying success of patterns (typically DNA strings); here I outline a seconds-to-minutes competition between different spatiotemporal firing patterns in a multifunctional cortical workspace. The proposed mechanism for recall from a passive distributed memory into an active working memory is analogous to genotypes and phenotypes. The ephemeral working patterns copy themselves in the manner of wallpaper pattern repeats; they occupy flexible islands in the workspace (useful for multi-tasking and analogical reasoning) that compete with one another for the limited workspace, with a widespread pattern signaling object identification or readiness to act. Pattern evolution is accelerated by cortical equivalents of the roles played by climate change and lowered sea level in island biogeography. Chimeric islands containing a pastiche of patterns are judged against episodic memories in a way that bears some correspondence to the known organization of human language cortex.William H. Calvin1998-04-13Z2011-03-11T08:53:46Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/263This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/2631998-04-13ZLovely and Suspect QualitiesA family of compelling intuitions work to keep "the problem of consciousness" systematically insoluble, and David Rosenthal, in a series of papers including the one under discussion, has been resolutely driving these intuitions apart, exposing them individually to the light, and proposing alternatives. In this instance the intuition that has seemed sacrosanct, but falls to his analysis, is the intuition that "sensory quality" and consciousness are necessarily united: that, for instance, there could not be unconscious pains, or unconscious subjective shades of blue, or unconscious aromas of freshly roasted coffee beans. The particular airborne polymers that are the vehicles of freshly roasted coffee beans could exist, of course, in the absence of any observer, and hence of any consciousness, but the sensory quality of that aroma requires--according to well-entrenched intuition--not only an observer but a conscious observer. Such properties have no esse except as percipi.Daniel C. Dennett1998-11-29Z2011-03-11T08:54:16Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/759This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/7591998-11-29ZMaintenance and decline of the suppression of infanticide in mother ratsVirgin female rats kill foster neonates, whereas newly parturient mothers do not. We demonstrated previously that this tendency to kill is suppressed shortly prepartum, presumably by physiological factors. In this study, we show that a) suppression of infanticide is maintained through the first two weeks of lactation; b) the mothers that do not kill foster neonates are not necessarily the same mothers that respond maternally toward older foster pups, and those that kill neonates are not necessarily the same ones that are nonmaternal to older pups, the two behaviors being somewhat independent; and c) some virgins can be induced to be noninfanticides by prolonged exposure to young, but only under special testing conditions not required by actual mothers, which are nonkillers of foster young. This suggests that the maintenance of the suppression of infanticide in mothers owes something so the special circumstances of lactation other than continued exposure to young.L. C. PetersT. C. SistM. B. Kristal2003-11-14Z2011-03-11T08:55:24Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/3269This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/32692003-11-14ZThe motor theory of language This paper amplifies and at certain points extends the account of the motor
theory given previously. The semantic, syntactic and phonetic structures of
language developed on the basis of a complex pre-existing system. More
specifically, the structures of language were a transfer from or a calque of
the structures of the pre-existing motor system. The motor system had
developed in terms of neural motor programs controlling the different
categories of movement. The motor programs were formed from a limited set of
basic subroutines which in combination could be used to produce an open-ended
and essentially infinite range of actions. The development of language made
use of these pre-existing subroutines into extended programs. By way of the
motor patterning imposed on the anatomical features which went to form the
articulatory system, language emerged as an external physical expression of
the physiological and neurological basis for movement control. Movement
control was already necessarily closely integrated with the parallel system
for the processing and control of perception. Language thus acquired the
ability to express the range and inter-relations of perceptual content.Robin Allott2004-05-06Z2011-03-11T08:55:33Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/3622This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/36222004-05-06ZNarrative and descriptive text revising strategies and proceduresForty-eight children and forty-eight adults of contrasting degrees of expertise made a series of corrections in order to improve a text (narrative or description) in which three within-statement errors and three between-statement errors had been inserted. Subjects used a simplified word processor (SCRIPREV) which recorded all movements of linguistic units. The purpose of this research was to study revising strategies by examining the correction-sequencing procedures implemented by these subjects. The procedures, which were coded in the form of time series, were compared to the time series of model revising procedures (i.e. effective ones) representing three strategies based on certain predefined functional principles (linguistic level, execution order). The adults used two of these strategies. The Simultaneous Strategy for the narrative, and the Local-then-Global Strategy for the description. The children used the Local-then-Global Strategy for the narrative, but did not use any identifiable procedure to revise the description, which they did not manage to totally improve in the expected manner.A PiolatJY Roussey2001-11-18Z2011-03-11T08:54:49Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1896This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/18962001-11-18ZNatural Language Processing
with Modular Neural Networks and Distributed LexiconAn approach to connectionist natural language processing is proposed, which is based on hierarchically organized modular Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) networks and a central lexicon of distributed input/output representations. The modules communicate using these representations, which are global and publicly available in the system. The representations are developed automatically by all networks while they are learning their processing tasks. The resulting representations reflect the regularities in the subtasks, which facilitates robust processing in the face of noise and damage, supports improved generalization, and provides expectations about possible contexts. The lexicon can be extended by cloning new instances of the items, that is, by generating a number of items with known processing properties and distinct identities. This technique combinatorially increases the processing power of the system. The recurrent FGREP module, together with a central lexicon, is used as a basic building block in modeling higher level natural language tasks. A single module is used to form case-role representations of sentences from word-by-word sequential natural language input. A hierarchical organization of four recurrent FGREP modules (the DISPAR system) is trained to produce fully expanded paraphrases of script-based stories, where unmentioned events and role fillers are inferred.Risto MiikkulainenMichael G. Dyer1998-05-06Z2011-03-11T08:53:37Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/30This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/301998-05-06ZThe neuropsychology of schizophrenia: A perspective from neurobehavioral geneticsGray et al. have presented an admirable integration of an enormous amount of both clinical and experimental data (deriving from many different fields: neurology, psychiatry, neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, etc.) to arrive at the most complete hypothesis about the neural bases of schizophrenia to date. According to their model, most disruptions of the complex neural pathways involved will lead to schizophrenic symptoms. Both genetic and environmental influences may, separately or together, have multiple effects at many different places in these neural systems. Hence, one of the strengths of the present model is that it provides a way to explain schizophrenia's well-known heterogeneity with regard to symptomatology (e.g., Dworkin et al. 1988; Van Eerdewegh et al. 1987) and presence or absence of certain biological markers in defined subgroups of patients (e.g., Markianos et al. 1990), but also with regard to the genetic correlates underlying this psychiatric disease (e.g., Baron 1986; Faraone and Tsuang 1985; Kennedy et al. 1988).Wim E. Crusio1998-05-06Z2011-03-11T08:53:42Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/167This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1671998-05-06ZNo evolution without genetic variationDr. Thornhill's target article presents us with a number of hypotheses concerning rules regulating inbreeding in man. It is argued that the goal of such rules is not primarily the avoidance of close-kin inbreeding, because 'selection for the avoidance of close-kin mating has apparently resulted in a psychological mechanism which promotes voluntary incest avoidance'.Wim E. Crusio1998-06-19Z2011-03-11T08:54:12Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/693This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/6931998-06-19ZNotationality and the Information Processing MindCognitive science uses the notion of computational information processing to explain cognitive information processing. Some philosophers have argued that anything can be described as doing computational information processing, and if so, it is a vacuous notion for explanatory purposes. An attempt is made to explicate the notions of cognitive information processing and computational information processing and to specify the relationship between them. It is demonstrated that the resulting notion of computational information processing can only be realized in a restrictive class of dynamical systems called physical notational systems (after Goodman's theory of notationality), and that the systems generally appealed to by cognitive science -- physical symbol systems -- are indeed such systems. Furthermore, it turns out that other alternative conceptions of computational information processing, Fodor's (1975) Language of Thought and Cummins' (1989) Interpretational Semantics appeal to substantially the same restrictive class of systems. The necessary connection of computational information processing with notationality saves the enterprise from charges of vacuousness and has some interesting implications for connectionism. But unfortunately, it distorts the subject matter and entails some troubling consequences for a cognitive science which tries to make notationality do the work of genuine mental representations.V. Goel2003-10-24Z2011-03-11T08:55:23Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/3242This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/32422003-10-24ZObjective MoralityAn objective basis for morality can be found in an evolutionary account of its origin and development. Morality is a key factor in the success of human groups in competition or co-existence with each other.A group's moral code represents an increasingly rational pattern of behaviour derived from the collective experience of the group handed down from generation to generation. Group selection is a controversial idea for animal evolution but it is inescapable in accounting for human evolution under the influence of language and the accumulation of cultural patterns. Morality has an objective physiological and neurological basis in so far as it exists to moderate the expression of the array of genetically-derived emotional patterns. Emotions represent the combination of action tendencies (neural motor programs) with (physiologically-derived) affective concomitants. The relation between emotion, empathy and morality is important. Empathy (a special form of perception still largely unexplained) has a key role both in the formation and cohesion of human groups and in the observance within groups of a moral code. Ultimately observance of moral rules depends on recognition by each individual of an integrating purpose in his life. In so far as the moral code is directed towards achieving this integrating purpose, morality for the individual becomes objective. Robin Allott1999-10-08Z2011-03-11T08:53:41Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/120This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1201999-10-08ZOn the Time of Peripheral Sensations and Voluntary Motor ActionsLibet's notions of backwards referral for peripheral sensations and unconscious cerebral initiative accompanying voluntary motor action are explored. It is proposed that the unexpected discrepancy between the time at which a peripheral sensation is experienced and the time at which cerebral neuronal adequacy underlying the sensation is attained is due to fundamentally different forms of temporality which are applicable to experiential and neurophysiological reference frames. A similar proposal is made for the unexpected discrepancy in the time of a neurophysiological readiness potential accompanying a voluntary motor action and the time of onset of the intention accompanying the action. Correspondences between experiential and neurophysiological levels of peripheral sensations and voluntary motor actions indicated by Libet's empirical evidence are shown to be adaptive if an individual's experience is important in his interaction with the environment.Douglas M. Snyder2001-06-18Z2011-03-11T08:54:40Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1578This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/15782001-06-18ZOther bodies, Other minds: A machine incarnation of an old philosophical problemExplaining the mind by building machines with minds runs into the
other-minds problem: How can we tell whether any body other than our own has a
mind when the only way to know is by being the other body? In practice we all use
some form of Turing Test: If it can do everything a body with a mind can do such
that we can't tell them apart, we have no basis for doubting it has a mind. But what
is "everything" a body with a mind can do? Turing's original "pen-pal" version (the
TT) only tested linguistic capacity, but Searle has shown that a mindless
symbol-manipulator could pass the TT undetected. The Total Turing Test (TTT)
calls for all of our linguistic and robotic capacities; immune to Searle's argument, it
suggests how to ground a symbol manipulating system in the capacity to pick out
the objects its symbols refer to. No Turing Test, however, can guarantee that a
body has a mind. Worse, nothing in the explanation of its successful performance
requires a model to have a mind at all. Minds are hence very different from the
unobservables of physics (e.g., superstrings); and Turing Testing, though essential
for machine-modeling the mind, can really only yield an explanation of the body.
Stevan Harnad2001-12-07Z2011-03-11T08:54:51Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1966This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/19662001-12-07ZOutcome of dyadic conflict in male green swordtail fish, Xiphophorus helleri: effects of body size and prior dominanceThe relative contribution of prior experience and of size asymmetries to the determination of dyadic dominance between unfamiliar individuals was examined using pairs of green swordtail fish, Xiphophorus helleri. Three experiments were conducted to assess the extent to which superiority in size could override potential handicaps resulting from prior experience. These results indicated that prior experience accounted for dyadic dominance when the size advantage of a previously subordinate over a previously dominant opponent was less than 25 mm2. However, as the lateral surface of the subordinate fish increased, neither previous experience nor size differences clearly accounted for the outcome of dyadic conflict. Even when the size advantage of subordinate opponents was in the 126-150 mm2 range, size differences did not adequately explain the outcome. In conflicts between large previously subordinate and smaller dominant fish, there was evidence for an inverse linear relation between the effects of size and the likelihood of establishing dyadic dominance. In general, males with prior experience as subordinates had to be at least 40% larger than a previously dominant fish to win a significant proportion of conflicts. These results indicate that prior agonistic experience and body size effects can be additive when at the advantage of one opponent. These factors can also cancel each other out when in opposition, at least when size differences are not extreme. The results also confirm the main effect of both factors as well as their interaction in the determination of conflict outcomes for X. helleri.
Jacques P. BeaugrandClaude GouletDaniel Payette2002-04-26Z2011-03-11T08:54:55Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/2189This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/21892002-04-26ZPartial report: Iconic store or two buffers?ABSTRACT. Selective recall of a subset of letters from a multiletter array declines systematically with increases in the delay of the partial report cue. The issues addressed were (a) whether such a decline is due to progressive loss of location information or to systematic loss of features and (b) whether partial report is the result of a select-then-identify or an identify-then-select process. Instructing the subjects to guess or not to guess had an effect of array, displacement, and extra-array errors. Emphasizing on recall location affected both intra- and extra-array errors. The interstimulus interval manipulation had an effect on extra-array errors as well as on intra-array errors. These observations are contrary to the suggestions that intra-array errors are due to loss of location information and that extra-array errors are indicative of a joint effect on misidentification due to chance and the ratio of extra-array errors to intra-array errors. Some other results are difficult for a dual-buffer model but can readily be accounted for by the orthodox view of the iconic store.
THE INITIAL STAGE OF VISUAL PERCEPTION is generally characterized as a transient veridical representation. Some investigators have suggested that only sensory, noncategorical information such as location, shape, color, and size are available in the transient representation (Haber, 1969; Neisser, 1967; Sperling, 1960). Selective recall is achieved by choosing some parts of the veridical representation for further processing on the basis of sensory information (e.g., Sperling, 1960; Turvey & Kravetz, 1970; von Wright, 1968). This position is called the "select-then-identify" view.
Siu L. Chow1998-06-18Z2011-03-11T08:53:38Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/43This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/431998-06-18ZThe Physiology of PerceptionThe brain transforms sensory messages into conscious perceptions almost instantly. Chaotic, collective activity involving millions of neurons seems essential for such rapid recognition.W. J. Freeman2007-10-22T10:46:07Z2011-03-11T08:56:58Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/5763This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/57632007-10-22T10:46:07ZPlacental opioid-enhancing factor (POEF): Generalizability of effectsA substance in amniotic fluid and placenta (POEF for Placental Opioid-Enhancing Factor) has been shown to enhance opiate- or opioid-mediated analgesia in rats. Recent studies have only touched on the generalizability of the phenomenon. The present studies further tested the generalizability of the POEF effect: they examined sex specificity of the mechanism, whether POEF activity exists in afterbirth material of species other than the rat; whether POEF activity exists in tissue other than afterbirth material; whether POEF activity could be demonstrated after injection rather than ingestion of afterbirth material; and whether POEF enhances all opioid-mediated phenomena. We found that (a) POEF is effective in male rats as well as in female rats; (b) POEF activity exists in human and dolphin afterbirth material; (c) ingestion of pregnant-rat liver does not produce enhancement of opioid-mediated analgesia; (d) POEF does not seem to be effective when amniotic fluid is injected either IPO or SC; and (e) POEF does not modify morphine-induced hyperthermia.P. AbbottA. C. ThompsonE.J. FergusonJ. C. DoerrJ. A. TarapackiDr. P.J. KostyniakJ.A. SyracuseD.M. CartoniaDr. Mark B. Kristalkristal@buffalo.edu2001-06-18Z2011-03-11T08:54:41Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1580This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/15802001-06-18ZPost-Gutenberg Galaxy: The Fourth Revolution in the Means of Production of KnowledgeThe 4th revolution after speech, writing and print, is skywriting (email, hypermail, web-based archiving).Stevan Harnad2006-10-05Z2011-03-11T08:56:38Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/5198This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/51982006-10-05ZPrediction of Consumer Behavior by Experts and NovicesAre those who are familiar with scientific research on consumer behavior better able to make predictions about phenomena in this field? Predictions were made for 105 hypotheses from 20 empirical studies selected from Journal of Consumer Research. A total of 1,736 predictions were obtained from 16 academics, 12 practitioners, and 43 high school students: The practitioners were correct on 58.2 percent of the hypotheses, the students on 56.6 percent, and the academics on 51.3 percent. No group performed better than chance.J. Scott Armstrong2001-12-01Z2011-03-11T08:54:50Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/1942This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/19422001-12-01ZPrior residency and the stability of dominance relationships in pairs of green swordtail fish Xiphophorus helleri (Pisces, Peociliidae)The stability of dominance relationships between pairs of male Green Swordtail fish was followed daily for 20 consecutive days. In one experimental sample composed of 21 pairs, dominance of one of the fish had been favoured on the first day by giving the fish prior familiarity (prior residency) with the aquarium where it was to meet an intruder. In a control sample composed of 12 pairs, two intruders met in an unfamiliar aquarium. It was expected that the advantage given to the dominant by familiarity with the aquarium on the first day would disappear as the subordinate acquired in turn familiarity with the milieu. In comparison with pairs composed of two intruders, this would show up by more frequent inversions of the initial dominance relationship in pairs composed of a prior resident and an intruder. Only two inversions occurred over the 20 days of follow up and they occurred equally in the experimental (5%) and control (8%) samples. These results confirm the great stability of dominance relationships in dyads and invalidate the hypothesis that the prior residency advantage would decay as the subordinate became familiar with the aquarium. Unexpectedly, 13 of the 66 (20%) fish died over the 20 days. Death equally occurred in both samples but 12 (92%) cases implied initial subordinates. The exception was an initial dominant which had become the subordinate pair member three days before death. Various hypotheses are suggested to account for the selective deaths of subordinates.
Jacques P. BeaugrandMartin Beaugrand1998-11-02Z2011-03-11T08:54:16Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/754This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/7541998-11-02ZReading and skimming from computer screens and books: The paperless office revisited?Past research has demonstrated that reading efficiency is lower from standard computer displays of the 1980s than from paper. In the present experiments, subjects read or skimmed stories, sometimes from a high-quality CRT (cathode ray tube) and sometimes from a book. Skimming was 41% slower from the CRTs than from the book. Possible reasons for this finding are discussed. Reading speed and comprehension were equivalent for the high-quality CRTs and the book. The paperless office may be imminent after all.Paul MuterPaula Maurutto1998-04-30Z2011-03-11T08:53:57Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/443This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/4431998-04-30ZReview of Rosenfield's "The Invention of Memory"Evidence collected by Bartlett, Collingwood, James, Bransford, Jenkins, and Sacks argues against the memory-as-stored-structures hypothesis, the keystone of expert systems and cognitive modeling research.William J. Clancey2002-10-28Z2011-03-11T08:55:05Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/2561This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/25612002-10-28ZSelf-awareness and "introspective" private speech in 6-year-old children.It has been suggested recently that self-awareness is cognitively mediated by inner speech and that this hypothesis could be tested by using the private speech paradigm, This paper describes a study in which the creation of a state of self-awareness was attempted in children to test the viability of a research strategy based on private speech and used to explore the hypothesis of a link
between self-awareness and inner speech, and to test directly this hypothesis by comparing the incidence of private speech in self-aware and control conditions. 32 children were asked to evaluate the attractiveness of pictures when in front of a mirror (a widely used self-focusing stimulus) and with no mirror. Reliably more favorable ratings of the images were predicted presuming intensification of affects in self-awareness. Private speech was recorded, with the prediction of a more important incidence of "introspective" self-verbalizations (for example, "Wow! I really like this picture!") in the self-aware condition. None of these outcomes were obtained.
Results are discussed in terms of previous attempts to manipulate self-awareness in children. It is suggested that the private speech paradigm does not appear to be a promising strategy when inner speech and self-awareness are consideredAlain Morin1998-06-11Z2011-03-11T08:54:11Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/682This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/6821998-06-11ZSituated cognition: Stepping out of representational flatland.Descriptions of novice-expert differences, reasoning strategies, explanation-based learning, etc. are descriptions of how people create and use models within a representational language, when interacting with their environment in cycles of perceiving and acting. To complement these descriptions, we need to understand how representational languages are created.William J. Clancey2003-06-06Z2011-03-11T08:55:17Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/3005This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/30052003-06-06ZSolving complex problems: Human identification and control of complex systemsStudying complex problem solving by means of computer-simulated scenarios has become one of the favorite themes of modern theorists in German-speaking countries who are concerned with the psychology of thinking. Following the pioneering work of Dietrich Doerner (University of Bamberg, FRG) in the mid-70s, many new scenarios have been developed and applied in correlational as well as in experimental studies (for a review see Funke, 1988). Instead of studying problem-solving behavior in restricted situations (like the "Tower of Hanoi" or "Cannibals and Missionaries"; cf. Greeno, 1974; Jeffries, Polson, & Razran, 1977), the new approach focuses on semantically rich domains that provide a touch of reality that has not inherent in the older research (see also Bhaskar & Simon, 1977). In the computer-administered scenario "LOHHAUSEN", for instance, subjects have to take over the regentship of a little town (Doerner, Kreuzig, Reither, & Staeudel, 1983). In other work, subjects take over the roles of a manager of a little shop (Putz-Osterloh, 1981), of an engineer in a developmental country (Reither, 1981), or of a pilot flying to the moon (Thalmaier, 1979). In general, the new approach deals with the exploration and control of complex and dynamic systems by human individuals.
This chapter is divided into four main parts. First, I give a working definition of what I mean by "complex problem solving" and suggest how complex tasks can be profitably analyzed and compared to each other across domains. Second, I summarize recent research on complex problem solving, analyze the main streams of current research, and discuss the underlying principles and mechanisms uncovered so far. Also, I consider how people learn to solve complex problems and discuss expert-novice differences in complex problem solving. Third, I describe my own approach to studying complex problem solving in which it is conceptualized as a dynamic process of knowledge acquisition and of knowledge application. I briefly describe the so-called DYNAMIS project and the DYNAMIS shell for scenario, and report the results of some studies within this framework. Finally, I give perspectives for future research. Joachim Funke1999-09-02Z2011-03-11T08:54:20Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/830This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/8301999-09-02ZSome Reservations About Power AnalysisThis is a critique of Cohen's (1990) claim that the power of a statistical test 'is the probability that it will yield statistically significant results' (p. 1). Two putative advantages of using power analysis are examined. It is shown that H0 is not used as a categorical proposition descriptive of the world. Using significance tests is compatible with making rational judgment.Siu L. Chow1999-06-15Z2011-03-11T08:53:40Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/98This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/981999-06-15ZStatistical mechanics of neocortical interactions: A scaling paradigm applied to electroencephalographyA series of papers has developed a statistical mechanics of neocortical interactions (SMNI), deriving aggregate behavior of experimentally observed columns of neurons from statistical electrical-chemical properties of synaptic interactions. While not useful to yield insights at the single neuron level, SMNI has demonstrated its capability in describing large-scale properties of short-term memory and electroencephalographic (EEG) systematics. The necessity of including nonlinear and stochastic structures in this development has been stressed. In this paper, a more stringent test is placed on SMNI: The algebraic and numerical algorithms previously developed in this and similar systems are brought to bear to fit large sets of EEG and evoked potential data being collected to investigate genetic predispositions to alcoholism and to extract brain "signatures" of short-term memory. Using the numerical algorithm of Very Fast Simulated Re-Annealing, it is demonstrated that SMNI can indeed fit this data within experimentally observed ranges of its underlying neuronal-synaptic parameters, and use the quantitative modeling results to examine physical neocortical mechanisms to discriminate between high-risk and low-risk populations genetically predisposed to alcoholism. Since this first study is a control to span relatively long time epochs, similar to earlier attempts to establish such correlations, this discrimination is inconclusive because of other neuronal activity which can mask such effects. However, the SMNI model is shown to be consistent with EEG data during selective attention tasks and with neocortical mechanisms describing short-term memory previously published using this approach. This paper explicitly identifies similar nonlinear stochastic mechanisms of interaction at the microscopic-neuronal, mesoscopic-columnar and macroscopic-regional scales of neocortical interactions. These results give strong quantitative support for an accurate intuitive picture, portraying neocortical interactions as having common algebraic or physics mechanisms that scale across quite disparate spatial scales and functional or behavioral phenomena, i.e., describing interactions among neurons, columns of neurons, and regional masses of neurons.Lester Ingber2006-12-22Z2011-03-11T08:56:44Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/5318This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/53182006-12-22ZSubtle signs of prenatal maldevelopment of the hand ectoderm in schizophrenia: a preliminary monozygotic twin studyGenes that predispose to psychosis may act by making individuals more vulnerable to the disruptive effects of various prenatal insults. Fetal organogenesis is mostly completed in the first prenatal trimester. The second trimester is a critical period of massive neuronal migration from the periventricular germinal matrix to the cortex. A peripheral appendage developing simultaneously with this neural migration to the cortex is the distal upper limb. The ectodermal cells of the fetal upper limb migrate to form the hand skin during the fourth and fifth months of gestation (first two-thirds of the second prenatal trimester). Discrepancies in hand morphology between two identical (monozygotic [MZ]) co-twins may be temporal markers, that is, the "fossilized" evidence of various ischemic and other nongenetic insults that may have affected one fetus more than his MZ co-twin during that early part of the second trimester. In twins, prenatal insults (e.g., ischemia) frequently do not affect both co-twins to the same extent, so we examined seven putative markers of prenatal injury to the hand in 24 MZ twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia or delusional disorder. Compared with well co-twins, the affected co-twins had significantly higher total scores of fourth- and fifth-month dysmorphological hand anomalies.
HS BrachaEF TorreyLB BigelowJB LohrBB Linington1998-04-05Z2011-03-11T08:53:46Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/261This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/2611998-04-05ZTwo Contrasts: Folk Craft versus Folk Science and Belief versus OpinionLet us begin with what all of us here agree on: folk psychology is not immune to revision. It has a certain vulnerability in principle. Any particular part of it might be overthrown and replaced by some other doctrine. Yet we disagree about how likely it is that that vulnerability in principle will turn into the actual demise of large portions--or all--of folk psychology. I am of the view that folk psychology is here for the long haul, and for some very good reasons. But I am not going to concentrate on that in my remarks. What nobody has bothered saying here yet, but is probably worth saying, is that for all of its blemishes, warts and perplexities, folk psychology is an extraordinarily powerful source of prediction. It is not just prodigiously powerful but remarkably easy for human beings to use. We are virtuoso exploiters of not so much a theory as a craft. That is, we might better call it a folk craft rather than a folk theory. The theory of folk psychology is the ideology about the craft, and there is lots of room, as anthropologists will remind us, for false ideology.Daniel C Dennett2003-01-05Z2011-03-11T08:55:07Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/2676This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/26762003-01-05ZTHE UTILIZATION OF HOLOGRAPHIC IMAGES, PARALLEL PROCESSES, AND THE HIPPOCAMPUS IN HUMAN MEMORYMEMORY OPERATES VIA SEVERAL COMPONENTS. THE MISCONCEPTION THAT MEMORY IS A UNITARY PROCESS HAS BEEN LONG HELD BY MANY NEUROPHYSIOLOGISTS AS WELL AS PSYCHOLOGISTS FOR YEARS NOW. HOWEVER, MEMORY IS MOST LIKELY THE CONSEQUENCE OF THREE SPECIFIC COMPONENTS: 1) DISTRIBUTED CONNECTIONIST SYSTEM, 2) NEUROLOGICAL, AND 3) THREE DIMENSIONAL HOLOGRAPHY. THE MAIN AIM OF THIS PAPER IS TO PROPOSE THAT MEMORY IS PURELY A COMBINATION OF CEREBROCENTRIC FUNCTION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENA.T. Park1998-12-14Z2011-03-11T08:53:51Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/371This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/3711998-12-14ZWhat's wrong with Psychology, anyway?This chapter considers various factors that have been responsible for the comparatively slow development of psychology into a cumulative empirical science. Special attention is devoted to correctable methodological mistakes, the over-reliance upon significance testing (and the fact that, in psychology, the null hypothesis is almost always false), and an analysis of the concept of replication.David T. Lykken1998-04-23Z2011-03-11T08:53:54Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/435This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/4351998-04-23ZWhere's the AI?Four viewpoints about what artificial intelligence is about are surveyed. Schank describes a program exhibiting AI as one that can change as a result of interactions with the user. Such a program would have to process hundreds or thousands of examples as opposed to a handful. Because AI is a machine's attempt to explain the behavior of the (human) system it is trying to model, the ability of a program design to scale up is critical. Researchers need to face the complexities of scaling up to programs that actually serve a purpose. The move from toy domains into concrete ones has three big consequences for the development of AI. First, it will force software designers to face the idiosyncrasies of its users. Second, it will act as an important reality check between the language of the machine, the software, and the user. Third, the scaled-up preograms will become templates for future work.Roger C Schank1998-06-12Z2011-03-11T08:53:58Zhttp://cogprints.org/id/eprint/455This item is in the repository with the URL: http://cogprints.org/id/eprint/4551998-06-12ZWhy todays computers dont learn the way people doSpeaking is conceiving, not translating what has already been represented inside the brain in a hidden wayWilliam J. Clancey